Christmas Night at School

The issue presented for discussion is whether the state of Massachusetts can validly allow a â€Å"Christmas Night† event. For this event, the school is planning a theatrical production of the â€Å"Three Wise Men,† a presentation of several ‘Christmas songs’ and a grab-bag gift session, for which all students were asked to bring a gift costing between five and ten dollars. Steve and his parents do not celebrate Christmas, and have therefore asked the school to change the theme of the night to not be a â€Å"Christmas† night. The school has stated that the Christmas Night will go on as planned, but that Steve and his parents are invited to not attend if that makes them feel more comfortable. Weisman Ruling and State Law/Regulations Based on the present state of both federal and Massachusetts state law, the school will not be able to hold Christmas Night as planned. There are several reasons for this, most notably a relatively consistent line of United States Supreme Court cases which have held that any attempts by a state actor to sanction or sponsor an event which endorses or promotes a specific religion will be struck down as unconstitutional under the ‘Establishment Clause’ of the First Amendment to the Constitution. Weisman Ruling The most recent and pre-eminent case on point is Lee v. Weisman (505 U. S. 77 (1992)), which held that a Providence, Rhode Island middle school violated the Establishment Clause when it invited a rabbi to its commencement activities to give an invocation prayer to the student body and their parents. Upon objection by the parents of student Weisman to the invocation, the school districted defended its position as compliant with the Establishment Clause by virtue of the fact that participation in the invocation was completely voluntary and that there was no penalty for not participating. These facts are in many ways completely analogous to the matter of Steve’s â€Å"Christmas Night† at his school. Two keys areas of rationale by the Weisman court explain why the position of Steve’s school likelky will not pass muster. First, according to the Court, the option of not attending an event without penalty is not considered a viable and voluntary option. The Court places an intangible value on participating in certain events in a child’s educational life that not attending deprives one of. One of these certainly is the commencement exercise and, arguably, the school holiday festivities are another. While the Weisman court ruling is limited to the graduation exercise, it is reasonable that a student who is the only (or one of the only) student to not attend is being deprived the benefit of a valued experience that is being sponsored by the school. Secondly, the Weisman Court held that under, the ‘coercion test,’ which is the present standard for evaluating cases under the Establishment Clause, an event is unconstitutional even if it creates an indirect coercion. This means that a school can not authorize the practice of any particular religion. The Court rationed that â€Å"it is no part of the business of government to compose official prayers for any group of the American people to recite as a part of a religious program carried on by government† (505 U. S. 577, 588). Steve’s school is attempting to do exactly what the Weisman Court said it cannot do- create a school program which is composed of the prayers and messages of a specific religion. Massachusetts Law/Regulations This position is even further supported by the existing law in Massachusetts on the subject. The starting point for this analysis is the General Laws of Massachusetts, Chapter 71, Section 31A, which provides that the â€Å"school committee may set appropriate guidelines for the celebration of Christmas and other festivals observed as holidays for the purpose of furthering the educational, cultural and social experiences and development of children. † This statute does two things at the state level. First, it acknowledges the need and propriety for regulating the observance of Christmas (and other holidays). Second, it recognizes that school observance of religious holidays is of educational, cultural and social value to students. Massachusetts passed Regulation 603 in its Regulatory Code which contains a section (#26) on Access to Equal Educational Opportunity. The purpose of this section is to insure that Massachusetts public schools â€Å"do not discriminate against students on the basis of race, color, sex, religion, national origin or sexual orientation and that all students have equal rights of access and equal enjoyment of the opportunities, advantages, privileges and courses of study at such schools† (603 CMR 26. 01). Further, these regulations impose requirements on the schools to insure that all students are treated equally: No school shall sponsor or participate in the organization of outside extra-curricular activities conducted at such school that restrict student participation on the basis of race, color, sex, religion, national origin or sexual orientation (603 CMR 26. 07). Steve’s school is attempting to sponsor an event that will run directly counter to the mandate of the Regulation, especially 603 CMR 26. 07. The school will argue that Christmas Night is open to all to participate and that any restriction based on religion is on the part of the student’s family and not by the school. The Weisman Court ruled that to give the student the option of participating in a faith-based event which runs counter to his or her beliefs or to be excluded by virtue of a voluntary (and permitted) absence, and in so doing be deprived of the extra-curricular activity sponsored by the school, creates the indirect coercion and therefore violates the Establishment Clause. Writer’s Thoughts on the Issue This issue presents two sub-issues for discussion. The first is whether the laws and court cases are proper on their face and the second is whether justice is being served in this instance. Regarding the first the issue, it appears that the laws are generally consistent with our nation’s values and beliefs on the matter of separation of church and state. Our founding fathers fled their respective home countries often times in the face of severe religious oppression. Even on our soil, the Salem witch trials demonstrate the dangers of religious intolerance and regulation. One of the core values that Americans have always stood for is the individual right to practice faith and to be free from institutionalized religion. Thus, the default position of the law, which states that any adoption of a religion’s practices or dogma is a violation of our constitutional guarantee against the establishment of a religious or its practices, is well founded and consistent with our national values. With respect to the matter of ‘censoring’ Christmas however, the issue can get a little more muddled. Certainly, Christmas is a denominational holiday and certainly many of Christmas’ traditions and observances are very religious in their nature. However, Christmas above all other denominational holidays, has become quite Americanized since the middle of the 20th century. Many of the customs and traditions have no bearing at all on faith or theology or dogma. Many Americans when they say ‘merry Christmas’ are actually saying ‘happy holidays. ’ Most Americans when they hear ‘merry Christmas’ are actually hearing ‘happy holidays. ’ When left generic and without any of the religious or theological references, Christmas is one of the few events which actually has a unifying and pacifying effect on the nation. It would be a shame to lose out on this galvanizing and festive force. Analysis of Additional U. S. Supreme Court Cases Abington v. Schempp The landmark case regarding the establishment of religion in U. S. public schools is Abington Township School District v. Schempp (374 US 203 (1963)), which ruled that school sponsored Bible reading in public schools is unconstitutional. This Court ruled that the government, in matters of religion, must protect all, prefer none and disparage none. Neutrality was the only acceptable position for a state or federal government to pursue with respect to any expression of religion. In his concurring opinion, Justice William Brennan acknowledged that school prayer and Bible study was a significant feature of American life when the Constitution and Bill of Rights were ratified. However, Brennan noted that it was not in the nation’s best interest to seek to interpret the relevance of the Establishment Clause to modern society by applying the literal intent of the interpretation given to the Clause in the previous centuries. Wallace v. Jaffree In 1985 the United States Supreme Court, in Wallace v. Jaffree (472 U. S. 8 (1985)), found that Alabama’s practice of setting aside one minute during each day for silent prayer or meditation to be unconstitutional. The Court struck down the statute requiring the silent prayer because its purpose was to advance to religion and there was no significant secular purpose for the law. Further, the Court found that the statute placed prayer in favored status over non-prayer, which violates the Establishment Clause’s prohibition against endorsing belief over non-belief and worshippers over dissenters. Santa Fe Independent School District v. Doe In a more recent case, Santa Fe Independent School District v. Doe (530 U. S. 290 (2000)), the Court ruled that allowing student-led prayer during the schools sponsored football games is unconstitutional. While the school argued that the prayer was private and not public speech, the Court rationed that because of the fact that the prayer is led during the schools sponsored game, using school owned P. A. equipment and on School owned property, the listener will inevitably conclude that School has endorsed the prayer. Suggestions for a Modified Christmas Night. In order to be able to present a Christmas night, the school must effectively sanitize the event. First, the name should be changed to reflect a holiday season event, without reference to one or more particular religious holidays. Second the program should be expanded to include other cultural holidays. Third, the programs should endeavor to be educational in nature and not merely a celebration of one religion’s customs. Finally, the program should not include any aspects of a program’s dogma or theology (such as the Three Wise Men or the nativity scene). However, a Christmas tree (properly adorned) would be fine. Even these modifications might not be enough to prevent successful challenges by offended students and their parents. Conclusion The Supreme Court of the United States has, for the past 60-70 years, taken the position that any actions by Federal, state or local government which appears to or actually does promote one religion above another, or subjugates one below another, is invalid and unconstitutional. While the notion of a school Christmas Night does not seem to be nefarious by any means, it will impede on the rights citizens to not be indirectly coerced into participating in a religious event that is not part of their faith or beliefs.

Madame Bovary Personal Response

In part two of Madame Bovary by Gustave Flaubert we see Emma’s development as a character in a negative way. Emma’s development is seen as she embarks on a path to moral and financial corruption all for a search of love and passion. The passion and love Emma seeks cannot be found in the reality of that time causing her to feel imprisoned in society with Charles whom she has no passion or lust for. To Emma love is defined as lustful, spontaneous action which she only reads about in her romance novels. SHe learns to fulfill this inner lust by undertaking in adultery with different men.Throughout this section of the novel we see the emotions Emma encounters, guilt, anger, lust, passion and spiritual longing. â€Å"The more Emma became aware of her love, the more she suppressed it. She would have liked Leon to guess at it†¦ † [p. 86] This quote shows the change is Emma’s character from part one due to the fact that in part one she only longed for such a r elationship and what she read in books and took pity on herself while now she has taken action by committing adultery. When Emma first meets Leon there is a spark and common interests emerge unlike between Emma and Charles.This is seen in the quote â€Å"Their Eyes indeed were full of more serious conversation; and, while they were struggling in search of banal phrases, each felt assailed by the same langour; it was like a murmur from the soul†¦ † [p. 88] Emma’s Lust for Leon is an example of the commencement of her thoughts of adultery actions, once Leon leaves she becomes even less satisfied by Charles than before and continues to seek for that same love she had for Leon. She goes to such extremes with love due to her idea of love coming from novels, this is seen when she considers ruining after Leo after he had left for Paris.This part of the novel is seen as Emma’s attempt at filling an empty gap in her hear in search of romance that she has always long er for yet never grasped. She seems to do this by committing such unfaithful acts. â€Å"†¦ but i always relish the upheaval; I do love being on the move. † This quote emphasizes the fact that Emma cannot stay with one decision or be in one place for a long period of time because she is easily bored and dissatisfied. Once Leon leaves Mme. Bovary has an understanding of her feelings for Leon and her regret for not pursuing these feelings. the bad days form Tostes came back again. † [p. 114] Emma then realizes the option of adultery and Leon was the one to open this idea up to her.This is what leads her to commit adultery later on in this section of the novel. The second major development is the love affair between Mme. Bovary and Rodolphe. This love affair fulfills the dream of the romance she has always longed for from the books that she has read. â€Å"She merged onto her own imaginings, played a real part, realizing the long dream of her youth, seeing herself as one of those great lovers she had so long envied! † [p. 51] This quote emphasizes Emma’s happiness and sense of accomplishment that she feels during the affair. This is a development in her character because this can be compared to previous areas in the book where she was bored and unhappy waiting for something to occur this sudden even has now changed this view on life to a more happy one.This is because there was now an aspect of excitement that allows her to experience her dreams that she has so long longed for which causes her to isolate herself from reality. This is seen when she wants to run away with Rodolphe â€Å"Take me away! † [p. 80] This also shows Emma’s selfish behavior because she is acting only to please herself while Charles sacrifices his love and lets Emma be with Rodolphe to treat her depression (illness). The final major development in Emma is when she is plunged back into reality with the letter the Rodolphe sends her. This letter a llows her to realize the difference between the romantic novels and dreams and reality. The fact that she had so many ideas to pursue with Rodolphe such as running away which she though would allow her total freedom.However these longings are all crushed and the caged feeling from before begins to come back again. why have not done with it? Who was to stop her? She was free† This quote shows her thoughts of running away with Rodolphe and how she want to be free. In conclusion these major developments such as the love for Leon and the introduction to the idea of adultery as well as the affair with Rodolphe and the longing for freedom show Madame Bovary’s change throughout part two of the novel. One is also able to see the constant unstable actions of Emma and her decisions. She is one to go from being spiritual to wanting to commit suicide, then desiring a proper family household and yet none of these make her happy for very long.

Marketing Research Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Marketing Research - Assignment Example It is also important that we understand that through awareness will improve on the public image of the company. Distribution research is also important in this type of strategy for Market share is important. In as much as the firm may understand the different types of brand that companies need best distribution channels assist in how the goods reach the customer in a very accessible manner. One strategy for business is how to keep inventory for the customers and how to reach the final destinations. By solving this challenge this can give Samsonite a very high advantage against its competitors. Samsonite should also include the pricing research as this is important to find the best mark up to charge their goods for having unrealistic charges can discourage customers from buying their favorite products. The financial aspect for any business is very important as this will make it possible for people to afford the products and finally lead to expansion of market share. 2) International marketing is the best strategy for Tim parker Merchandise. An international luggage company bag it requires a wider scope of people to view the product. The people with interest in travelling will lead the business to growth as this is of importance to ensure visibility of the product. The expert in sales has always suggested that there is a relation in sales and visibility. They suggest when one views something there is the chances of buying the product. It is likely that there are also campaigns of showing how reliable the product is. There are many products in this industry and the only important thing is to ensure that there is more campaign so that it can stand out. Marketing is one of the most component thing in this century is awareness and letting your competitors understand what makes your brand tick. It is always encouraging and it should not be assumed as blowing

SC2C67C Rights, social justice and diversity. (Criminology subject) Essay

SC2C67C Rights, social justice and diversity. (Criminology subject) - Essay Example His major thesis was that the basic equalities that we all share as ‘citizens’ in modern western industrialized democracies have the effect of reducing or ameliorating basic inequalities. In T.H. Marshall’s view, citizenship should mean an enhancement in the concrete substance of civil life, a general reduction of risk and insecurity, an equalisation between the more and less fortunate people in all areas and at all levels (p.1965). The main purpose of citizenship according to T.H. Marshall is to achieve a fuller measure of equality, an enrichment of the various aspects of which the status is made, and an increase in the number of those on whom the status of citizenship is bestowed. Equalisation is not so much between classes as between individuals within a population which is now taken as one class. Equality of status is considered to be more important than equality of income (Dwyer, 2004: p.1965). The rights of citizenship: Dwyer (2004: p.1965) states that T.H. Marshall had delineated three rights, as integral to citizenship: civil (legal), political and social: The civil element is composed of the rights necessary for individual freedom – liberty of the person, freedom of speech, thought and faith, the right to own property and to conclude valid contracts, and the right to justice. The political element is the right to participate in the exercise of political power, which includes universal suffrage, which is the right to vote without restrictions such as property qualifications, and the right to hold public office. The social element is the whole range from the right to basic economic welfare and security, to the right to share in the full in the social heritage, and to live a civilized life according to the standards prevailing in society (Dwyer, 2004: p.1965). The duties of citizenship: Corresponding to the rights are the duties of citizenship: paying taxes and insurance contributions, education

Elizabeth Gaskell short story The Old Nurse's Story, which is taken Essay

Elizabeth Gaskell short story The Old Nurse's Story, which is taken from the Virago Book of Ghost Stories (Virago 2006), The Weir by Connor McPherson, and dramatises Valerie's story - Essay Example ‘The Virago Book of Ghost Stories’ has series of ghost stories which are edited chronologically so that the reader can feel the change in the pattern of the ghost stories over the ages. In the short story ‘The Old Nurse’s Story’, the author Mrs. Gaskell pitches in various factors that make the plot of the story truly supernatural. She inculcates the series of untimely deaths, the secrets of the family, the sibling rivalries along with more common features like love and jealousy. The most important attribute that makes the story so popular in the genre of the supernatural stories is the addition of certain Gothic features like that of the old manor house, stormy evenings, extreme emotions, super natural ambience and above all the child ghost. The excerpts from the story, â€Å"I was all in a hot, trembling passion; and I said it was very well for her to talk, that knew what these sights and noises betokened, and that had, perhaps, had something to do with the spectre -child while it was alive. And I taunted her so, that she told me all she knew, at last; and then I wished I had never been told, for it only made me afraid more than ever† (Gaskell, â€Å"The Old Nurses Story†) provides for the superb case of spectre - child. The play ‘The Weir’ captures the scene of a regular rural Irish Bar where three ‘regulars’ are busy in having drink with the bar owner. The four of them are old time friends. While sipping in to their drinks, they are busy narrating and swapping stories with each other. All of a sudden, a lady, in her late thirties, arrives at the bar and asks for wine. She joins the four friends with her drink. The chemistry of the group changes as all of them tries to impress the lady with their stories which in due course of time turns to Irish folklores with supernatural events. After all the male counterparts are done with their respective stories, the lady commences her narration of the melancholy

Last unit Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Last unit - Essay Example For making it successful it needs to have a proper support structure of management, resource allocation, training, measurement, incentive system and reward system (Rank, 2010). Overall the continuous improvement is possible when everyone in the organization is involved in the process and contributes to it. Every employee must be able to adopt and accept the continuous change by which it will be possible for the firm to achieve a competitive advantage in the marketplace. Problem solving is the main driving force behind continuous improvement (Rank, 2010). To survive in the global business environment, it requires the organization to have the capacity to respond effectively and efficiently to continuous changing and emerging economic and political changes even those that might be very complicated to anticipate. To make strategic changes in response to these challenges, the organization must be flexible enough to adopt such changes. Not only for survival but also for the success of the organization in such competitive environment continuous improvement are required for both business performance and for quality of product (Ncube, & Wasburn, 2008). The continuous improvement process of an organization requires its management to appreciate and recognize its history of spirited successes and failures. The need assessment need to be integrated well with the continuous improvement process for success. Need assessment will provide the identification of deficiencies between current and desired results. This will identify gaps between capabilities and needs. Here lies the opportunity for the organizations to implement continuous improvement concept to fulfill the gaps and attain the expected desired outcome. The current performance can be compared to the previous standard and opportunity can be identified to make improvements (Ncube, & Wasburn, 2008). PDCA is a continuous improvement tool

COMPUTING NETWORK MANAGEMENT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

COMPUTING NETWORK MANAGEMENT - Essay Example The company has multiple sites that need to be interconnected and all the sites are located in neighbouring areas. The proposed LAN for Transcom Tax Analysis Ltd is the Token Ring LAN. The ring shaped network basically uses baseband transmission with the token access method. The bus usually consists of screened four core cable and the equipment is connected via MAUs. Up to eight PCs can be connected to one MAU (Atkins and Norris, 1995). A total of 260 MAUs can be included in one ring. Several rings can be connected together by means of a bridge. The topology can be a combination of start and rings (Atkins and Norris, 1995). All the MAUs lie on the ring while the computers are connected in a star to the MAU. A special bypass device in the MAU senses which of the computers are not in use and cuts them out of the ring (Leinwand, 1995). Other connections in the MAU are included in the ring. The network follows the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) standard 802.2 for link protocol and 802.5 for connection to the medium (Atkins and Norris, 1995). The normal transmission rate is 4 Mbits/s, but speed of up to 16 Mbits/s is possible. By analysing the company needs and requirements, it is clear that the company is in need of a Token Ring LAN that is designed in association with one or multiple MAUs. One MAU is enough for smaller locations but for larger locations, more than one MAU should be employed (Pountain, 2001). As the company’s working procedures are well spread, they are in need of more than one MAUs, which will be connected together developing one MAU as the central authority. The Token Ring Topology is considered more reliable and secure due to which, the company’s security issue will be resolved. Moreover, the Token Ring Topology is the best choice for those networking environments that have heavy workload. UTP cable is more sensitive to EMI

Criminal law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Criminal law - Essay Example When Roxy arrived home her neighbour, Trisha invited her in for a cup of tea. While she was there, she noticed Trisha’s new Rolex watch and asked Trisha if she could borrow it to wear to an appointment she had later on that day as she wanted to impress the person she was meeting. Trisha refused as she was worried that Roxy might lose it. When Trisha was not looking, Roxy took the watch intending to return it that evening after her appointment. Her appointment ended earlier than she expected, however, an on her way home she noticed that the pawnshop was still open. As she was short of money, she decided to pawn the watch and redeem it the following day when she received her wages. She would return it to Trisha when she had redeemed it. Consider the criminal liability, if any, of Roxy. Basic Structure Examination of the actus reus of theft, then mens rea, then conclude. Introduction: s1. Then, analyse the Actus Reus in s3(1), s4(1), s5(1). s3(1), s4(1), s5(1) need analyse too. . .. The actus reus for theft is where a person appropriates property belonging to another. The mens rea element of the offence is committed when it can be shown that the property was obtained dishonestly with the intention of permanently depriving the owner any rights over the property. This is listed in s1 TA 1968. There is no requirement that the intention of the person stealing the item is doing so with the intention of making a gain from taking the item1. The court will not consider the appropriation to be dishonest if the person taking the item can show that they believed that had the right to take the item2. This would also be the case if the person taking the item believed that the owner of the property would give their consent to take the item3. Appropriation has been defined under s3(1) of the 1968 Act, which makes it clear that if the person taking the item assumes the rights of an owner over the property this will amount to appropriation4. Under s4(1) property has been defined as ‘money and all other property, real or personal, including things in action and other intangible property’. Land can only be stolen in certain circumstances, but there is no need to discuss this in the case of Roxy. Possession of property is defined as ‘belonging to any person having possession or control of it, or having any proprietary right or interest5’ in the property. Even if the person taking the item does not intend to permanently deprive the owner ownership of the property, such intention can be inferred if the person taking the item treats the item as their own to dispose of regardless of the other’s rights6. Having considered how the Theft Act defines theft it is now possible to consider the actions of Roxy in each of the above situations and determine ant

Presumtion of Innocent Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Presumtion of Innocent - Case Study Example Fair interpretation gives fair justice. Further, the rules, which are for guidance of human conduct, must be differentiated from rules of strict regulation. These rules of morality, which guide rather providing for strict regulation, must be recognised and allowed to stand. In the proper administration and enforcement of law, the distinction between criminal and civil matters should be clearly put in place, and in proper enforcement, there should be a clear court system where criminal and civil courts are in place. Whichever way, the rules of law must be clear and the enforcement agencies effective. A system of enforcement of the law lies before the Police and courts of law. These courts of law have been given discretion to award sentence or acquit. In their enforcement of the law, these officers should apply the law universally without fear or favour. The Police role of the Police in enforcement of law is maintaining public order and peace. Whenever the police have reason to doubt the commissioning of a crime, they must move in and prevent such a crime from happening. They must also investigate and prosecute the wrongdoers. The cause of action should be ascertained and the wrongdoers brought to justice. Conclusively, in enforcement of the law both agencies the courts of law and police must coordinate so that they can be able to enforce the law. Each organ should play its duty as prescribed in the law. Both the police and courts have the duty of enforcing the law so as to avoid a state of anarchy. Rules Which are Subject to Interpretation Interpretation is the act or result of interpreting, explanation, meaning translation, exposition etc (Webster's New World Dictionary. (i) Primary Rule (Literal rule) Under this rule the words of an enactment are to be given their ordinary and natural meaning and if such meaning is clear and unambiguous, effect should be given to a provision of a statute whatever may be the consequences. (ii) The Rule laid down in Heydon's case has attained the status of 'Mischief Rule'. The rule enables consideration of four matters in constructing an act: (i) What was the law before the making of the Act (ii) What was the mischief or defect for which the law did not provide (iii) What is the remedy that the Act has provided (iv) What is the reason of the remedy. The rule directs that the courts must adopt that construction which shall suppress the mischief and advance the remedy. Gardier v. SevenOaks (1950) The question in this case was if the cave was included in the word premises under English Statute. The court, Held it included and the statute therefore had application of X's case. (iii) Golden Rule Under this rule, a statute is interpreted in such a way as to remove any inconsistency, absurdity that might arise from a literal interpretation of the words used. Re Sigsworth (1935) The question here was whether x could be apparent heir as per the literal interpret

Abortion Essay Example for Free

Abortion Essay Abortion is the deliberate ending of a life after fertilisation. For many years the morality of abortion has been disputed with many religions condemning women from having an abortion. Abortion also goes against many ethical theories, such as Rule utilitarianism and Bentham’s Utilitarianism. A religion that is strongly against abortion is Christianity. In Christianity it is believed that life is given by God and he only has the right to end it. The Christian holy book, the bible, forbids intentionally destroying a foetus. It is argued that humans have no authority over the taking of a life as God is the creator and giver of life. Christians believe that human life begins as conception, making abortion wrong as it is murder of an innocent life. Humans are born with the potentiality of becoming an adult, and Christian Church is strongly against the taking of the human’s life as it seen as ‘playing God’. Christianity rejects the taking of an innocent life as it is considered a grave sin as it goes against the Ten Commandments which says ‘Thou shalt not kill’. This makes a foetus a person that not be murdered. Another religion against abortion is Islam. Islam forbids abortion as it seen as ending life, similar to that of Christianity. Islam also forbids the abortion f a severely disable foetus as it is still seen as a human and therefore has the potentiality of becoming an adult. Many women have an abortion as they feel they will not be able to provide for the child. The Qur’an, the Muslim holy book, says that the family must have trust in Allah as he will help them, thus making abortion wrong in the Islamic faith : ‘Kill not your offspring for fear of poverty’, Qur’an 17:32. There are many ethical theories that are against abortion. One of which being rule utilitarianism. A rule utilitarian would be against abortion, as their basis for moral-decision making is following general rules. Killing is wrong and therefore a rule utilitarian would be against it, as rule utilitarianism focuses on keeping rules even if it does not serve ‘the greatest happiness’. Bentham’s utilitarianism would be against abortion. When applying his Hedonic Calculus to an example of a 15 year old, who is considering having an abortion it would be considered wrong to have one. After having the child the girl would feel intense pleasure and happiness and this would override the pain and regret she would feel is she had had the abortion. The richness f not having the abortion would be that the girl would feel the joys of being a mother and the extent of having the child would be the baby’s life would be, bringing pleasure and happiness to family and friends. To conclude, religions such as Christianity and Islam are strongly against abortion on the grounds of abortion is a way of ‘playing God’. Also a rule utilitarian would be strongly against abortion as abortion does not follow the general rule that killing a life is murder. Bentham’s utilitarianism would be also reject abortion when applied to his Hedonic Calculus, as more pleasure would come from having the baby than killing it.

Benefits Of Manpower Planning

Benefits Of Manpower Planning Reliance telecommunications LTD is an Indian telecommunication company founded by Anil Ambani in 2004. The headquarters of the company is in Navi Mumbai India. Reliance telecommunication is the 15th largest telecommunication provider in the world with 150 million subscribers and the second largest telecommunication provider in India. The company has segments like wireless and broadband in telecommunication industry. The company achieved a high growth in telecommunication industry from the beginning stage itself. Customer satisfaction and good company policies made them to competitive with other companies. Reliance communications follows good human resource policies and procedures even though it has some draw backs. Vision of the company-Providing information, communication, entertainment services and being the benchmark in customer experience, employee centricity and innovation is the main vision of the company. Mission of the company-meeting beyond customer needs and wants with a segmented approach, relentless offering of services and products that are value for cash and stimulate customers, offer a network experience that is best in the communication industry, make reliance in to an international brand which is a iconic brand by others and lead industry in target to purchase and faithfulness. INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Human resource management refers to an assortment of policies used to systematize work in the employment relationship and centres on the management of work and the management of people who undertakes this work. Therefore HRM is concerned with recruitment, selection, learning and development, reward, communication, teamwork and routine management. While it is relatively easy to list activities that make up HRM, It is a subject that stimulates much debate and disagreement. The hr process is considered as important for the management of the consumer pleasure with human recourses. The clients find comfortable and will be satisfied when they understand the hr processes and how they are connected and the hr processes interact. Modern hr processes are measured and frequently analysed and identifies the irregularities in the activities and it brings the improvements for the benefits of the organisation. The success of Human Resources Management is in the connection of all HR processes as they provide the adequate supports to workers and the managers. So the main aim of Human Resource Management is to keep the human capital ready for action on the market and the rational grouping of HR Processes helps to interact and manage the individual processes. Every organisation has their own HR processes, but the main HR Processes are always same in all companies as it is the market HR Best Practices. Human Resource Management is considered as a comparatively new approach to Personnel Management. HRM emphasizes primarily on its strategic contributions and its closer alignment to business, HRM is a vital component of any organization, its involvement among other components of line management is notable (Paauwe. J, Jan 2009). Paauwe further suggests that HRM aims on its ultimate goals such as High job performance, low absence and high cost effectiveness through the efficient utilization of the man power of the company. Human resource is really the major component of any organization, the success or failure of an organization heavily relies on its Man power management. Maslows need Hierarchy theory is considered as guiding principle for HR Management across the globe. Maslow identified the very basics of human motivation factors. Following this principle it can be assumed that to motivate an employee HR manager should understand his level of expectations, potential of the employee, a nd should evaluate the performance before and after certain motivational measures implemented. KEY HUMAN RESOURCE ACTIVITIES OF RELIANCE TELECOMMUNICATIONS MANPOWER PLANNING Human Resource Planning is the integral part of Human Resource Management Human Resource Planning estimates the optimal level of Man power requirement on the basis of quality and quantity. Thus HRP can be considered as the foundation of Human Resource management. Although HR planning is very important it cannot be executed faultlessly in all cases, as HR is dependent on various factors such as employment situation of the country, influence of technological advancement, changes in the organization structures, Demographic factors such as age, population, composition of workforce, lack of skill, multicultural workforce etc. Certain pressure groups will also affect the precision of the HRP. Understanding of competencies of the Human resource is vital in forming a successful HR frame work. Lengnic-Hall, 1988, Milliman et al., 1991, describes the terms Internal and External fit, Internal fit refers to the extent to which the manpower constituents are linked in a logical way and how effecti vely they support themselves, on the other hand external fit primarily focus on the strategy of the organization, external fit reveals to what extent human resources systems are integrated. Manpower Planning or Human Resource Planning includes putting exact number of people, exact kind of people at the exact place, exact time at a low cost. Personnel Planning hold an important place in the world of industrialization. Personnel Planning has to be a systematic approach and is managed in a set of model operations. The procedure is as follows: Assessing the present manpower in the company Forecasting the future needs budding employment programmes Organising training programmes BENEFITS OF MAN POWER PLANNING Manpower planning is very important part of human resource management. A few importance of man power planning are. concentrated labour cost.-with the help of manpower planning there is most favourable operation of labour force in the organisation workers are given those jobs to implement for which they are skilled (right person for the right job).it leads to overall progress of the man power in the organisation. Optimum utilisation of manpower: it helps to utilise the labour force in the company which helps in the growth of manpower in the organisation. Develops business plan-Man power planning is an important part of overall business planning. No business can survive without having the right type and number of people doing the right work at the right time. Helps in career succession planning-with the help of better manpower planning it helps to produce a good career succession of employees which provides much lead time for internal succession of workers through higher position through encouragement. Development of the organisation- The man power planning helps in the expansion of an organisation. Growth in overall business planning-Manpower planning is a main part of overall business planning. Efficient manpower planning will help to improve the business. RECRUITEMENT AND STAFFING Recruitment and staffing is the process of selecting the right labours in to the organisation. The main aim of recruitment is to look for and be a magnet for persons with skilled to fill the vacancies. This process includes job analysis preparing personnel requirement sources of skilled employees. Job analysis Job analysis is a process of analysing the job in detail and providing the details of job needs to the HR planning department they present details as job specification and job analysis. Job analysis is important in the whole organisation. And they will provide the details of manpower requirements. The main sources of recruitment are Reliance communications have two main sources of recruitment internal and external internal external sources of recruitment(figure.2) Internal sources of recruitment are. Promotion-This is a normal source of recruitment, which means providing higher position, salary and responsibilities to the employee. So the position of the job vacancy is filled by promoting the suitable employee within the organisation. Transfers-It means transferring one employee to the other organisation without change in salary and position, so the vacancy can be filled by transfer. Advertising internally-Here the job vacancy is advertised within the organisation so the existing employees in the organisation can apply for the post. So the recruitment is take place inside the organisation. External sources of recruitment are. Selective recruitment through job boards-This is a major source of recruitment .To ensure most appropriate qualified candidates are being applied for the major position. The agency considers the following details for every positions junior, intermediate, senior, Level of education degree, diploma etc. Using these details the company determines which job boards, communication channels, and advertisement strategies are suitable for attract the right skilled candidates to apply for the job positions. Management consultants-For the vacancies in the higher positions in the company, management consultants are used to find the qualified and skilled employees. They act as a recruiter on the behalf of the company. Advertisement for public-The Company advertises the vacancy in internet, newspapers, Television etc. And this will provide the details of the company, job and the qualification required for the position. NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF STAFFING Keep space with new development-New developments are happening every day. A business will have to keep phase with new changes. This will be possible only if competent persons are employed who can adjust as per the new situation. Manpower Development-man power planning will have to be done in advance. The future requirements of personnel will be estimated quite in advance. The new staff will be recruited, people will be prepared for talking up higher responsibility jobs, and all this will be possible with a well planned staffing function. HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPEMENT This function helps the employees to develop their skills and knowledge for increasing their output. This process is not only done for the freshers but also to the existing employees in the firm to develop their skills and responsibilities. Human resource development helps to increase the total knowledge, abilities, skills, talents, and aptitudes of an organisations work force. Human resource development includes function such as training, career development. Training-Training is providing to improve the knowledge and skills of the employees there are mainly two types of training they are on the job training and off the job training. On the job training is a process of giving training in normal working situations using actual materials or documents, equipment, actual tools trainees will make use when completely moulded. Off the job training is usually provided away from the usual working environment, it may include more general skills and knowledge which is useful for the job. This type of training is given by the specialised trainers or from an outside company who outsource the trainers. METHODS OF TRAINING H. Internet and distance Training Internet training includes video conferencing and web based training, distance training means traditional training paper and pencil correspondence course. 1. Tele training where a trainer in a central location teaches groups of employees at remote locations via television hookups. 2. Videoconferencing allows people in one location to communicate live via a combination of audio and visual equipment with people in different locations-another city or country or with groups in several cities. 3. Training via the Internet the Internet based learning programs are very popular. Several companies simply let their employees to take online courses provided by online course providers while others use their intranets to facilitate computer-based training. CAREER DEVELOPEMENT Diagram demonstrating your personal development Carrer developement of employees is a crucial part of the organisation, It helps to identifies the overall acheivement of the employees .Career developement is becoming an essential part of HR departement due to todays everchanging organisaton enviornment and work place. Reliance communications helps the employees to attain a good carrer graph based on the company HR policies and procedures. First of all the company gather the strength and weakness of every individual, then they provide different opportunities to develop their carrer based on the strength and weakness. The basic formula for the career developement is self awareness every individual asses their own problems and issues and then the company will help to over come this issues .Now days people are changing their jobs to attain a good carrer success .Reliance communication identifies this problem and they had a good career sucession plan for every individual employee in the organisation. COMPENSATION AND BENEFITS Compensation and benefits is a basic motivational factor to the employees.Every employee will search for high paid jobs,benefits is also another important factor if the company provides good benifits the employees will get good attachment to the company benefits include bonus, medical insurance,retierment policies, life insurace, vacation etc.Reliance communicatons provide basic pay which is satisfiable for every employee to motivate the employees and to attract to qualified employees to the organisation. LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT Leadership development helps the organisation to achieve the goals, through the development of good leadership in each employee reliance aims at the overall development of the organisation as well as the growth in employees functioning.Every employee in the organisation is gaining a better leadership quality through the leadership development function.Each emloyees in the company are closely monitored by the management and if they are weak in the work the company will encourage them.And the workers are councelled by the management to increase work efficiency.And their will be a structured plan to create a positive working enviornment.The main aim of leadership development is to leading self, leading others and leading the organisation. C:UserssonyDesktopLDRMiddle3.gif MAJOR HR ISSUES FACED BY RELIANCE COMMUNICATION ISSUES IN RELIANCE COMMUNICATIONS EMPLOYEE RETENTION POOR HR POLICIES CASH AND COMPENSATION ISSUES 1.CASH AND COMPENSATION ISSUES: Cash and compensation issues is a major problem faced by HR managers in reliance communications. There is more pressure on HR function to pay more incentives and basic pay for the employees.However reliance paying basic salary to each individual employees the company faces more pressure to meet the employee beniefits . 2.EMPLOYEE RETENTION ISSUES: Most of the companies face the same problem of employee lay-offs. So the organisation have to prevent the issue by retaining the employee by providing good working condition and benefits whichever the employees need. In reliance industries there are so many employees leave the company due to lack of co-ordination between workers. The organisation tries to check the issue but fails sometimes. 3. POOR HR POLICIES : The plocies and practices adopted by the HR managers regarding their networking sector is an important example. They brought some new plans in mobile networking sector like low call rate for mobile users, low internet browsing charge.etc., but the competitors like AIRTEL communications, BSNL network, VODAFONE facilitated some more exciting offers than the reliance. In that situation the Reliance communication hesitated to change their HR policies and techniques. SOLUTIONS TO OVERCOME THE HR ISSUES Nowdays telecommunication industry is facing high competition from other telecommunication companies, If the company has no good HR stratergies the company cannot exist in the high competative world.Reliance communication is facing some HR issues as mentioned above, to overcome this problems company must do some good HR restructuring process in the company .The first main issue is ; Cash and compensation issues- As it is a major problem the company must find a good solution to overcome this issue, the suggestion to solve this problem is to pay cash and compensation based on the experience of the employees.As mentioned above the company is paying a basic salary to each individual, first of all the company must change this basic payment method,and the compensation and benifits must be paid according to the experience and skills of each individual. So the company can reduce the cost of labour so the company can meet the compensation and benifits of each individual according to the profit earned by the company. Employee retention issues-Retention of employees is another HR issue faced by the company, nowadays a lot of employees are leaving the company due to high pressure of work and lack of co-ordination between employees are the main employee retention issues faced by reliance communication, to reduce this problems reliance must provide good working enviornment to reduce the pressure of work, communication is another way to over come this problem good communication between the management and staff will make a good understanding between the employees and management, this will increase employees confidents and reduce the work pressure.A high rate of employees resigning their job and going to another companies who offer better working enviornment. Better co-ordination is the another way to improve employee retention,co-ordination will improve better relationship between employees and management.And this will result increase employees confidence and work efficiency. Poor HR policies-Due to high competition in communication industry lots of companies introducing new HR techniques to improve their company goodwill .Reliance communication is following the traditional HR policies and plans so the company is facing high market competition from other companies, to exists in the competative market company must improve their HR stratergies and policies.Nowadays companies are providing good offers to the employees so the company must realise the problems and try to overcome such issues.

Dragons In America :: essays research papers

Dragons in America   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Monsters or dragons in present day America are feared .Monsters in America consist of politicians, celebrities, and criminals. In America they are portrayed through media, television, and movies. Monsters in America are feared but can also be seen as a source of entertainment.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Media and entertainment create most of the fear in Americans. In the news we hear of shooting, killings, and rapes everyday. The media always gives a very in depth look a each incident to satisfy the audiences every wonder. Entertainment on the other hand enhances these modern day monsters in movies and television. Movies about serial killers such as â€Å"Natural Born Killers†, â€Å"Seven† â€Å" The Stand†, and â€Å"Silence of the Lambs† strike fear in to the hearts of millions of Americans all too often. This creates people to fear monsters in reality more than ever because Hollywood makes monsters as scary as possible. The television is another source of violence in the world. It seems that every shows on TV has to do with some kind of terrible murder. Shows like â€Å"New York Undercover† always end up with a seen where someone is shot to death. This makes the viewer perceive society as a place too dangerous to live in.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A very obvious monster in America is a criminal. Americans fear burglars, rapists, and killers in their own cities and states. They are feared because their victims are people like themselves and are victimized in very familiar places to the average American. That is why people protect themselves with security systems and weapons. Criminals are feared mainly because their victims are random. People never feel completely safe knowing that they may be the next victim.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Besides fear of monsters that pose physical threats, there are monsters in politics that scare people as well. Corrupt politicians are feared because of past and foreign politicians that have caused unfair, and painful treatment of the people they represent. That is why all candidates for office are thoroughly examined to make sure that they can be trusted. And every time a politician makes a mistake or something negative is said about him or her people panic and fear that the person that represent them could end up harming them instead of representing them in their best interest. Incidents in the past that have caused great turmoil in politics is Watergate, and Communism in foreign countries such as Germany and Russia.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Some celebrities scare Americans because they are seen as hero's or idols in the films, or events they are in. O.J. Simpson is a monster because he was a legend and a hero of all football fans.

The Theme Of Father/son Relationships In Beowulf & The Song Of Roland :: Epic of Beowulf Essays

The Theme of Father/Son Relationships in Beowulf & The Song of Roland The representation of father-son type relationships in early Medieval literary works is a key theme early authors used to give their works more depth and meaning. Two works that use the theme of father-son relationships are Beowulf and The Song of Roland. In Beowulf, the relationship between Hrothgar and Beowulf is one in which there is no actual blood father-son tie, but the two characters take on all the characteristics of a real father son relationship. Hrothgar, although Beowulf's senior, has to rely on this new warrior who comes to Heorot to help him rid his kingdom of a great danger which he can not get rid of by himself, and Hrothgar treats him as if he were his own son. In The Song of Roland, Charles' relationship with his nephew Roland also takes on the characteristics of a father-son type relationship. In this work, although Charles is the better warrior than Roland, he relies on Roland to watch the rear guard of his army and Roland loses his life while serving his King. The significance of these inter-generational relationships will be looked at in this paper, as well as what the authors through the guise of these father-son relationships were trying to say about various different aspects of life during their time. In Beowulf, the function of the relationship between Hrothgar and Beowulf helps to further the plot in several ways. Whenever there is a reliance on family in any literary work, it gives any story more meaning and significance. When Beowulf first arrives in Hrothgars' hall, we get a sense of the old and incapable state Hrothgar is in "old and gray-haired among the guard of earls" (Beowulf, pg. 62) is how he is first described. When hearing who Beowulf's father is he states in a joyous tone "I knew him when he was a child!..Well does the son now pay this call on a proven ally!" (Beowulf, pg. 62-63) Immediately there is a fond relationship here which will develop even further. When Beowulf claims that he is in Heorot to cleanse the people of the monster named Grendel who is plaguing them, Hrothgar is very grateful and he states "So it is to fight in our defence, my friend Beowulf, and as an act of kindness that you have come to us here!" (Beowulf, pg. 65) We see here that Hrothgar is indeed grateful to have the services of so brave a warrior. When Beowulf slays Grendel, the pride that the old Hrothgar feels towards Beowulf can almost be equated to

Comparing Two Leadership Theories Essay -- Leadership

There are different leadership theories developed throughout the history. Most popular ones are trait theories, behavioral theories, contingency theories, and leader-member exchange (LMX) theory. The author of the post will briefly discuss two theories, Fiedler contingency theory and Leader-Member Exchange (LMX), and compare and contrast their strengths and weakness. Fiedler’ model is considered the first highly visible theory to present the contingency approach. It stated that effective groups depend on a proper match between a leader’s style of interacting with subordinates and the degree to which the situation gives control and influence to the leader (Fiedler, 1967). Fiedler argued that the leadership style could be indentified by taking a Least Preferred Co-worker (LPC) questionnaire he designed. When evaluating a least enjoyed co-worker, a relationship oriented leader scores high in LPC, while a task oriented leader scores low. Fiedler identified three contingency or situational dimensions: leader-member relations, task structure, and position power. A leader will have more control if he has better leader-member relations, high structured job, and stronger position power. The task-oriented leaders perform best in situations of high and low control, while relationship-oriented leaders perform best in moderate control situations . Feedler views an individual’s leadership style as fixed. To assure leader effectiveness, either situation needs to change to fit the leader or the leader needs to be replaced to fit the situation. But in reality, a leader can not use a homogeneous style to treat all their followers in a similar fashion in their work unit (Robbins & Judge, 2011, p. 382). Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) theory, on t... ... over 25 years: Applying a multi-level, multi-domain perspective, Leadership Quarterly, 6(2):219-247. Gils, S. v., Quaquebeke, N. v., & Knippenberg, D. v. (2009). The X-Factor: On the Relevance of Implicit Leadership and Followership Theories for Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Agreement European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology. Rotterdam, Netherlands: Erasmus Research Institute of Management (ERIM). MindTools (n.d.) Fiedler's Contingency Model. Retrieved November 16, 2010 from http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/fiedler.htm Robbins, S. P., & Judge, T. A. (2011). Organizational behavior (14 ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Mao Zedong (n.d.). in Wikipedia. Retrieved November 16, 2010, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mao_Zedong Zhou Enlai (n.d.) in Wikipedia. Retrieved November 16, 2010, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhou_Enlai

Kuleshov Effect Essay

Montage is one of the three important steps in cinematographic creation, with pre-production and shooting. Technically, it is the action of cutting, pasting and putting together shots. It helps creating rhythm, meaning and order to the story. Montage is an art form : with the same shots, you can express thousands of different feelings and visions according to the montage used. Kuleshov, a Russian filmmaker in the 1920’s, is the first one to write about this theory, now known as the ‘Kuleshov Effect’. This theory is used everywhere now (advertisement, news paper†¦). The Kuleshov Effect theory is that every shot depends on the context, of what happened before and what will happen after. Kuleshov discovered that the viewer creates his own interpretation of what he sees on the screen. For example, with the shot of a man with no expression on his face, he can create the impression of hunger when putting a shot with food right after, or of sadness with a shot of a dead person, or of kindness with the shot of a little girl playing. This theory can be summarized with the formula A + B = C ; ‘A’ being the first shot, ‘B’ the second one, and ‘C’ the meaning the viewer’s mind creates by putting those two shots together. So the Kuleshov Effect is very powerful. When we had to work on a project using the Kuleshov Effect, with my teammates, Giovanna and Christian, we first decided to create a funny story. So we decided to do a funny final twist for our first work. The first shot, the ‘A’, was a boy running in the hallway, as if he was in a hurry to go to some very important place. The second shot was him looking desperately to something, and then the camera moved to the student store’s sign saying : ‘Closed’. So the emotion the viewer has when he sees the whole video is disappointment, because he was waiting for something very important to happen. But if we had used the same first shot with another ‘B’ shot, for example a policeman running, or someone dying in a hospital bed, the emotion would not have been the same. For our second work, we chose to do something more typical, like what Kuleshov did for his own experiment. So we shot the face of a boy, with no expression, for the ‘A’ shot. Then we shot three different situations : a vending machine (B1), a Tic tac toe (B2), and a girl walking in the hallway (B3). The idea was to show that with the same ‘A’ shot, put with different ‘B’ shots, a different emotion could be created ; A+B1 shows hunger, A+B2 shows focusing, and A+B3 shows attraction. To have the best shots as possible, we learned how to white balance a camera, which was not very easy since we had to do it manually ! When we started shooting, we had a very good time looking for how we should put the camera to have the greatest shot as possible ; it was very fun because we felt like real filmmakers. For example for our shot of the boy running in the hallway, we first wanted to use a pan and follow the boy running, but then we realized that the result was not as powerful as we would expect it to be, so we chose to use a steady shot instead, with an eye-level angle and a long shot to see the whole movement. Then another interesting shot in my opinion was the one of the ‘CLOSED’ placard ; we decided to use a tilt movement of the camera down to up, which was a smart choice I think because it seemed that the boy who was squat on the floor after running was looking up to the sign. For the second part of the work, we only used steady shots because we thought it would be more powerful for the experiment of the Kuleshov Effect. The face of the boy with no expression is a Close Up and Eye Level shot, because we learned that a close up was the best way to show the expressions of someone, and the goal of this shot was for the viewer to create his own emotion for that particular shot. But shooting is not the easiest thing of the world, most of the time we had to do the shots twice because the angle was not good, or the camera not white balanced enough. For the montage with FinalCutProX, we discovered that we could cut some of the shot we had, to reduce their length. That was a very effective feature for us because some of our shots tended to be too long for their purpose, for example to create suspense. Another really important feature of the software, of course, is that it allows you to place your shots as you want, and not especially in the order you shot them, which was great because sometimes we did not film our shots in the order we wanted them to appear in the final video. So montage is really a key step in the process of filmmaking.

Relationship Between Lactate Threshold Essay

Abstract Research into the relationship between physiological variables and running performance has been variable. The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between 5k running performance and a number of physiological variables in a group of 11 trained club runners (Age 21.451.63yrs, Height 175.092.77cm, Weight 67.865.12kg). The athletes underwent a laboratory treadmill test to determine their maximum oxygen uptake (VO2 max) and running velocities at lactate threshold (v-Tlac) and blood lactate concentration of 4mM (v-OBLA). Running performance was determined by a 5k time-trial on an athletics track for which the average time was 1097.09  ± 108.02 secs. The mean velocities for v-Tlac and v-OBLA were 15.18  ± 1.5km/h, 16.76  ± 1.60 km/h and mean VO2max was 59.10  ± 3.54 ml/kg/min. The best single predictors of 5k running performance were v-OBLA and VO2max (p = .003, p = .007) while v-Tlac was slightly poorer (p = .013). It is concluded that lactate variables may be valid an d reproducible predictors for 5km running performance. Introduction Research throughout history has established that a number of physiological variables relate to distance running performance, including Lactate Threshold (Tlac), OBLA and VO2 Max (Conley and Krahenbuhl, 1980; Costill, Thomason and Roberts, 1973; Coyle et al, 1983; Farrell et al, 1979; Hagberg and Coyle, 1983; Lafontaine, Londeree and Spath, 1982). The results from this research have been variable. Evidence has shown that blood lactate variables highly correlate with running performance over a variety of distances. Additionally, these variables contribute to running performance variance more than any other physiological variables (Yoshida et al, 1990, 1993). ‘Lactate Threshold’ describes the point at which exercise begins to hurt more than it should because the body’s lactate production exceeds the body’s ability to flush it away (Robergs & Roberts, 1997). It is the exercise intensity at which lactate threshold occurs that can be used as a significant predict or of endurance performance (Allen et al, 1985; Coyle et al, 1988; Farrell et al, 1979). It is considered a powerful tool for developing effective training regimes and as a method of monitoring adaptation to endurance performance, although to be effective at fulfilling these roles, the measurement of lactate threshold must be reliable. OBLA is the Onset of Blood Lactate Accumulation. OBLA is accepted as an incremental method for detecting the lactate deflection point (Australian Sports Commission, 2000). Being able to detect this point is crucial as it is an indication of when an athlete switches from a predominantly aerobic to anaerobic metabolism, which leads to hastened fatigue. It is established that a level of ~ 2 – 4 millimoles per dm3 (litre) represents OBLA. Duggan and Tebbutt (1990) examined blood lactate concentrations of non-athletes during a treadmill protocol at 12 km/h. Results suggested vOBLA to be a reproducible performance predictor. In addition to Lactate variables, sports scientists measure VO2 max to objectively evaluate a subject’s functional aerobic capacity. VO2 max is the maximum volume of oxygen that can be utilised in one minute during maximal or exhaustive exercise (Bassett & Howley 2000). The majority of research using heterogeneous groups has found that VO2 Max correlates highly with running performance (Costill et al, 1973; Thomason and Roberts, 1973; Foster et al, 1978). However, when moderately homogeneous groups were tested, low-moderate correlations were found (Conley and Krahenbuhl, 1980; Morgan et al, 1989). Saltin and Astrand (1967) discovered that high VO2 Max values in subjects have been related to successful running performance, because traditionally the oxygen cost of running is directly proportional to running speed. Grant et al (1997) conducted a study involving treadmill protocols to assess all of the variables considered above and a time trial on an indoor 200m track to determine 3km-running performance. The main findings concluded that lactate variables were the best single predictors of v-3km. Further research and development of knowledge concerning the dominant physiological contributors that underlie short-distance running performance will enable greater specificity in training methods, allowing for improved competitive performance. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the relationships between Lactate Threshold, OBLA, VO2 Max and 5km Running Performance. Experimental Hypothesis It is to be hypothesised that participants reaching higher velocities upon reaching lactate threshold will display superior 5k running performance and that there will be a significant relationship between the two variables. It is to be hypothesised that participants reaching higher velocities upon reaching OBLA will display superior 5k running performance and that there will be a significant relationship between the two variables. It is to be hypothesised that participants with a greater Vo2 Max (oxygen capacity) will display superior 5k running performance and that there will be a moderate relationship between the two variables. Null Hypothesis It is to be hypothesised that there will be no significant relationship between velocity at lactate threshold and 5k running performance. It is to be hypothesised that there will be no significant relationship between velocity at OBLA and 5k running performance. It is to be hypothesised that there will be no significant relationship between VO2 Max and 5k running performance. Method Participants A total of 11 Trained Club Athletes, who have been free from injury for the past three months, were tested (Age 21.451.63yrs, Height 175.092.77cm, Weight 67.865.12kg). All participants were asked to complete a consent form. Research design The experiment involved 2 experimental trials; a lab based test to determine Tlac, OBLA and VO2 Max and a 5k running time-trial on the athletics track, completed in a counterbalanced order with 1 week separating each trial. Both trials were conducted on the same day and at the same time of day (10:00 – 11:00 am). Laboratory conditions were 21 0.3 (C) and track conditions were 20 0.2 (C). Procedures Screening: Participants were screened prior to exercise to ensure they had an appropriate health status for exercise. Screening included taking resting heart rate using a heart rate monitor (Polar, T31, Finland), and blood pressure using a blood pressure monitor (Omron, MX3 Plus, Netherlands); Resting heart rate >90bpm; systolic blood pressure >140 mmHg; and diastolic blood pressure >90 mmHg. Participant Preparation: Prior to exercise participants were prepared and fitted with the necessary equipment. A heart rate monitor (Polar, T31, Finland) was fitted and a resting blood lactate measurement taken. Prior to blood sampling, hands were washed, gloves were worn and the area of sampling was cleansed with an alcohol wipe. A small insertion was made to the participant’s earlobe using a lancet. The first blood droplet was wiped away and blood was collected using a capillary tube. The blood was then mixed and analysed using a lactate analyser (Analox Analyser Micro-Stat, P-GM7, USA). The participant was then prepared for exercise. A nose clip, breathing pneumotach and mouthpiece (Hans Rudolf, USA) were equipped. The following equipment was then attached to an automated gas analyser (Medgraphics, CPX Cardio II, USA), allowing the measurement of oxygen uptake. Exercise Protocol: As all participants were catagorised as trained athletes, creating a homogeneous group, a warm-up speed intensity of 12km/h (Endurance Athletes) was selected, in relation to ‘The guidelines for establishing exercise intensity for the determination of TLAC during treadmill running in adults’ (Adapted from Jones and Doust in Eston And Reilly, 2001) (Appendix 1.2). Following a 5-minute warm-up on the treadmill (Woodway, ELG, Germany), the participants completed an incremental graded exercise test. Increments lasted 4 minutes, timed on a stopwatch (Fast Time, 1) and at the end of each increment the participant rested for a period of 1 minute, this allowed for the collection of a capillary blood sample. The speed was increased by 1kph per increment. Upon attaining a blood lactate value of 4 mmol.L-1, the test became incremental and continuous, continuing the 1kph increase in speed but now per 2 minutes with no resting period. The participant was ran to volitional exhaustion and then asked to complete a cool-down at a running intensity below the warm-up level. Participants lactate thresholds were determined by monitoring their 2mmol point; OBLA by monitoring their 4mmol point and VO2 Max was the participant’s maximal oxygen uptake from the protocol. Statistical analyses The dependant variables Heart Rate (HR), Rating Of Perceived Exertion (RPE), and Blood Lactate (BLa) were recorded at each of the workload intervals. Atmospheric pressure (mmHg) and air temperature (C) were recorded using a barometer and thermometer and remained constant throughout the experiment. SPSS was used to determine correlations between Velocity at Tlac (Kph), Velocity at OBLA (Kph), VO2 Max and 5k Running performance (seconds); Paired Sample T Test was used to determine the significance of relations between Mean 5k Velocity and Velocity at OBLA. Significance level was set at P ≠¤ 0.05. Results The research experiment of the 11 participants provided a number of important variable measurements of which can be analysed. Table 1. Mean and Standard Deviation of Physiological Variables. | Velocity at LT (km/h)| Velocity at OBLA (Km/h)| VO2 max (ml/kg/min) | 5k time (secs)| 5k time (mins)| 5k Running Velocity (km/h)| Mean| 15.18| 16.76| 59.10| 1097.09| 18.28| 16.55| Figure 1. The relationship between v-Tlac and 5k Running Performance. Table 1. Figure 1. Displays the Velocity at Lactate Threshold results for all 11 participants for the duration of the experiment. Participant’s averaged a Velocity of 15.18 1.5km/h upon reaching Lactate Threshold. There was a high, significant, negative correlation between Velocity at LT (mean  ± SD = 15.18  ± 1.5km/h) and 5k Running performance (mean  ± SD = 1097.09  ± 108.02sec) of the trained athletes: rho = -.664, N = 11, p = .013, (one-tailed). Figure 2. The relationship between v-OBLA and 5k Running Performance. Table 1. Figure 2. Displays the Velocity at OBLA results for all 11 participants for the duration of the experiment. Participant’s averaged a Velocity of 16.76 1.6km/h upon reaching OBLA. There was a very high, significant, negative correlation between Velocity at OBLA (mean  ± SD = 16.76  ± 1.60 km/h) and 5k Running Performance (mean  ± SD = 1097.09  ± 108.02 sec) of the trained athletes: rho = -.770, N = 11, p = .003, (one-tailed). Figure 3. The relationship between VO2 Max and 5k Running Performance. Table 1. Figure 3. Displays the VO2 Max results for all 11 participants for the duration of the experiment. Participant’s averaged a VO2 Max of 59.10 3.54ml/kg/min. There was a very high, significant, negative correlation between VO2max (mean  ± SD = 59.10  ± 3.54 ml/kg/min) and 5k Running Performance (mean  ± SD = 1097.09  ± 108.02sec) of the trained athletes: rho = -.712, N = 11, p = .007, (one-tailed). Figure 4. Relationship between Mean 5k Running Velocity and Velocity at OBLA. The dependent t-test showed that there were statistically no-significant differences between mean velocity (mean  ± SD = 16.55  ± 1.57 Nm) and velocity at OBLA (mean  ± SD = 16.76  ± 1.60 Nm); t = .692, df = 10, p = .511, (two-tailed). Discussion The main finding of the study was that v-OBLA was strongly related to 5k running performance. A simple correlation of v-OBLA and 5km running performance presented high significance (r= -.770; P < 0.01). The correlation between VO2max and 5km running performance in the present study was also highly significant (r= -.712; P < 0.01), succeeding the significance hypothesised and superseding the significance of v-Tlac (r= -.664; P < 0.05). These results agree with that of previous studies expressing high relationships between lactate variables and running performance (Allen et al, 1985; Farrell et al, 1979; Hagberg and Coyle, 1983; Kumagai et al, 1983), and closely relate to a fairly recent study performed by Yoshida et al, (1993), which conveyed simple correlation results of 0.77 and 0.78 between v-Tlac, v-OBLA and 3k running performance. Running velocities at Tlac and OBLA are subjective to a variety of factors, including muscle fibre type. Further research by Costill et al, (1976) discovered that elite endurance runners have a high proportion of Type I fibres, which have subsequently been linked to low blood lactate concentrations at given work rates (Tesch et al, 1978). The high relationship of lactate variables to 5km running performance suggests that success in distance running can be determined by performance at the highest possible running velocity that can be attained without the accumulation of blood lactate; when velocity exceeds this and lactate production rises, acidosis occurs as a result of glycolysis, which has been proven to cause decreases in force production, consequently affecting performance (Donald son and Hermansen, 1978; Fabiato and Fabiato, 1978). The correlation between VO2 Max and 5km running performance exceeded the significance found between the two variables in present studies (Hagberg and Coyle, 1983). Literature considering this topic area documents that endurance performance is habitually more highly correlated with lactate variables as appose to VO2 Max (Jacobs, 1986). Studies of well-trained athletes have evidenced that VO2 Max can remain relatively stable throughout the duration of a competitive season, despite athletes displaying changes in performance (Galy et al, 2003; Jones and Carter, 2000). This indicates that VO2 Max isn’t perceptive enough to determine transient improvements in performance, and shouldn’t be solely used as a predictor of endurance running performance. The dependent testing of mean 5km velocity and v-OBLA documented that there were no significant differences between the two (p = 0.511). This suggests participants were running at approximately the highest velocity that they could attain without the accumulation of blood lactate. The study of Usaj (2000) supports that when velocity exceeds v-OBLA, lactate fluctuations exceed steady conditions and athletes experience fatigue earlier. The variance figures between v-OBLA, v-Tlac and running performance (R2 = 59.3 per cent; R2 = 44.1 per cent) are considerably lower than previous studies, however these still suggest that blood lactate variables must contribute to running performance. Yoshida et al (1989) reported large portions on common variance between v-OBLA, v-Tlac and running performance (R2 = 88.6 per cent; R2 = 72.8 per cent). Study implications included the inefficiency of obtaining lactate measurements within the time allocation, possibly causing variable results, and an occasional equipment failure when obtaining heart rate measurements. In addition to the variables tested, previous studies have found a relationship between running economy and endurance performance (Ramsbottom et al, 1987; Grant et al, 1997). This may be an area to examine in future research. Conclusion The study concludes that in a heterogeneous group of 11 trained endurance athletes, blood lactate variables are the most highly valid and reproducible predictors for 5km running performance, strongly supported by previous research. Contrastingly, although VO2 max results were highly significant, they failed to correlate with previous research and it is to be suggested that VO2 max can only be considered as a moderate alternative predictor. References Australian Sports Commission. Physiological Tests for Elite Athletes. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2000. Allen, W.K., Seals, D.R., Hurley, B.F., Ehsani, A.A., and Hagberg, J.M., (1985). Lactate threshold and distance running performance in young and older endurance athletes. J. Appl. Physiol. 58, 1281–1284. Bassett, D.R., & Howley, E.T., (2000). Limiting factors for maximum oxygen uptake and determinants of endurance performance. Medicine and Science in Sport and Exercise. 32, 70-84. Conley, D.L., and Krahenbuhl, G.S., (1980). Running economy and distance running performance of highly trained athletes. Med. Sci. Sports Exercise. 12, 357-360. Costill, D.L., Thomason, H., and Roberts, E., (1973). Fractional utilization of the aerobic capacity during distance running. Med. Sci. Sports. 5, 248-252. Coyle, E.F., Martin, W.H., Ehsani, A.A., Hagberg, J.M., Bloomfield, S.A., Sinacore, D.R., and Holloszy, J.R., (1983). Blood lactate threshold in some well-trained ischemic heart disease patients. J. Appl. Physiol. 54, 18-23. Coyle, E.F., Coggan, A.R., Hopper, M.K., and Walters, T.J., (1988). Determinants of endurance in well-trained cyclists. J. Appl. Physiol. 64, 2622–2630. Donaldson, S.K.B., and Hermansen, L., (1978). Differential, direct effects of HI on Ca2†³-activated force of skinned fibers from the soleus, cardiac and adductor magnus muscles of rabbits. European Journal of Physiology. 376, 55-65. Duggan, A., and Tebbutt, S.D., (1990). Blood lactate at 12 km/h and vOBLA as predictors of run performance in non-endurance athletes. International Journal of Sports Medicine. 11, 111-115. Fabiato, A., and Fabiato, F., (1978). Effects of pH on the myofilaments and the sarcoplasmic reticulum of skinned cells from cardiac and skeletal muscles. Journal of Physiology. 276, 233-255. Farrell, P.A., Wilmore, J.H., Coyle, E.F., Billing, J.E., and Costill, D.L., (1979). Plasma lactate accumulation and distance running performance. Med. Sci. Sports. 11, 338-344. Foster, C., Costill, D.L., Daniels, J.T. and Fink, W.J. (1978). Skeletal muscle enzyme activity,  ® bre composition and ÇV O2 max in relation to distance running performance. European Journal of Applied Physiology. 39, 73-80. Galy, O., Manetta, J., Coste, O., Maimoun, L., Chamari, K., and Hue, O., (2003). Maximal oxygen uptake and power of lower limbs during a competitive season in triathletes. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports. 13, 185–193. Grant, S., Craig, I., Wilson, J., and Aitchinson, T., (1997). The relationship between running performance and selected physiological variables. Journal of Sport Sciences. 15, 403-410. Hagberg, J.M., and Coyle, E.F., (1983). Physiological determinants of endurance performance as studied in competitive racewalkers. Med. Sci. Sports Exercise. 15, 287-289. Jacobs,I., (1986). Blood lactate Implications for training and sports performance. Sports Med. 3, 10-25. Jones, A.M., and Carter, H., (2000). The effect of endurance training on parameters of aerobic fitness. Sports Medicine. 29, 373–386. Kumagai, S., Tanaka, K., Matsuura, Y., Matsuzaka,†¨A., Hirakoba, K. and Asano, K., (1983). Relationships of anaerobic threshold and the onset of blood lactate accumulation with endurance performance. European Journal Of Applied Physiology. 52, 51-56. Lafontaine, T.P., Londeree, B.R., and Spath, W.K., (1982). The maximal steady state versus selected running events. Med. Sci. Sports Exercise. 13, 190-192. Morgan, D.W., Baldini, S.D., and Martin, P.E., (1989). VO2max among well-trained male runners. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 21, 78-83. Ramsbottom, R., Phil, M., Nute, M.G.L., and Williams C., (1987). Determinants Of Five Kilometre Running Performance In Active Men and Women. British Journal of Sports Medicine. 21, 9-13. Robergs, R.A., & Roberts, S., (1997). Exercise Physiology: Exercise, performance, and clinical applications. St Louis, Missouri: Mosby. Saltin, B., and Astrand, P.O., (1967). Maximal Oxygen Uptake in Athletes. Journal of Applied Physiology. 23, 353-358. Tesch, P., Sjodin, B., and Karlsson, J., (1978). Relationship between lactate accumulation, LDH activity, LDH isozyme and fiber type distribution in human skeletal muscle. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica. 103, 40-46. UÃ… ¡aj, A., (2000). The application of criterion OBLA in prescribing running endurance training intensity is limited. KinSI. 6, 57–62. Yoshida, T., Udo, M., Iwai, K., , Muraoka, I., Tamaki, K., Yamaguchi, T., and Chida, M., (1989). Physiological determinants of race walking performance in female race walkers. British Journal or Sports Medicine. 23, 250-254. Yoshida, T., Udo, M., Iwai, K., Chida, M., Ichioka, M., Nakadomo, F., and Yamaguchi, T., (1990). Significance of contribution of aerobic and anaerobic components to several distance running performances in female athletes. European Journal of Applied Physiology. 60, 249-253. Yoshida, T., Udo, M., Iwai, K., and Yamaguchi, T., (1993). Physiological characteristics related to endurance running performance in female distance runners. Journal of Sports Sciences. 11, 57-62.

International Human Resource Management and Organizational Behavior

INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR II (1089) Individual Paper Review By Diana Kovacheva ID 0752805 I. Abstract This paper has the purpose to review the seven articles and parts of books stated in class and evaluate them with the help of 3 criteria. Firstly, the three chosen criteria are going to be defined. Then a brief summary of each article or book chapter is going to be made followed by an evaluation according to the mentioned criteria. . II. The Criteria * CurrencyThis criteria is supposed to define if the information in the article is current, not only by stating when it was published, but also by analyzing if this is from importance for the purpose/outcome of the article. This criterion might be very important when evaluating factual information, because new findings constantly emerge. However, for some type of information, currency is not an issue. * Objectivity This criterion is supposed to check if the information presented is mostly based o f facts or it just expresses personal opinion.Important for the evaluation is to examine whether the claims are logical and credible and if there is evidence for that. * Relevance for practitioners Here it is important to evaluate if the information given in the article could be of use for the audience it is meant for. For this paper, under â€Å"audience† is meant people who deal with the issue of international human resource management and organizational behavior. III. Global Managers: no longer men aloneThe article of Nancy Adler explores the changing role of women in management position and traces the evolution of the perceptions of the female role and that of diversity in the context of successful global management. The introduction to the topic stresses on the fact that the traditional judgment for one’s skills and abilities based on gender is increasing the opportunity costs for the companies. Due to the global intensified competition, it is becoming more and mo re crucial for a company’s success to recognize a potential talent regardless of its gender.This has led to an increasing number of female representatives to be found in top leading position. Following this trend, questions about the difference in the management style of both genders have arisen. Furthermore, no consensus has been reached on the issue if male and female managers act differently or they are just perceived to do so. For the better understanding of this issue, a table with a set of six questions – three behavior- vs. hree perceptual-based, two descriptive vs. four evaluating, was presented. In it individual assumptions showed different dimensions of â€Å"difference†, some people stating just that both type of managers are similar or different, and others evaluating the difference as inferior or superior. It was criticized the fact, that most of the assumptions are based on perceptions and not on real observations, due to the fact that still not so many women are to be found in higher positions.After further reclassification of the questions, four approaches were presented about increasing the number of women in global management positions: 1) Identifying with men’s approaches to managing internationally : Here management by men is conceived to be superior to that by women and women try adopt their manner of managing; 2) Denying difference : this approach assumes that there are no differences, there is only one way to manage and both male and female managers are treated identically; 3) Identifying with women’s approaches to managing internationally : here the difference between the two gender is agreed upon, but also the women’s superiority in managing because of the typical characteristics of the female gender and their increasing importance in doing business globally; 4) Creating synergy : this approach stresses on the contribution and synergies of the combined management styles ‘ The article also presents the evolution of organizational culture and classifies it into 5 stages: 1) Homogenous culture: in this first stage it is mainly the historical-conditioned dominance of men in leading roles.This is possible only when no internal or external pressure is present and diversity is irrelevant; 2) Single-culture dominance: identifying with men – since the 60s, equality on the two genders was promoted which led to an increased number of women in domestic and low-level position; 3) Denial of differences: the stress here is not on the gender, but on excellent performers. However, the identical treatment of women like men led to many women in top positions resigning because of the unsatisfactory conditions; 4) Accepting differences: companies recognized and appreciated the different between the genders and the importance of tolerating women’s approach for market segments dominated by women; 5) Leveraging differences: the increased global competition since the beginning of the 20th century has led to the recognition of the importance of diversity and diversity-based learning and innovation.As a conclusion, the evolution of the role women has played over time was briefly summarized again, stressing on the shift from quantitative to qualitative measures. The authors mentions that still only few companies have reached the last level and recommends a more open discussion about the importance of diversity. * Currency : the article was published in 2002 and most of the sources are from the 90s; furthermore, the last trends discussed has started with the beginning of the century and so, are still current; * Objectivity: the statements made are mostly based on research on a global level and a logical relationship between the arguments and the stages presented in obvious * Relevance for practitioners: the topic is of high relevance and importance for practitioner.The issue presented in the article in increasingly discussed globally and represents a crucial part in the modern understanding of management. IV. Creating Values with Diverse Teams in Global Management The central issue in this article is how to create value with global diverse teams and the obstacles that arise using such teams. There teams are believed to have a lot of potential and be able to create significant comparative advantage. However, in practice this is usually not the case because of misunderstandings and lack of interaction between the various cultures. On the other hand, exactly the cultural differences are believed to create value due to the multi-sided approach and innovative solutions they can generate.According to the article, global teams were divided into three performance categories: * The destroyers: those team usually underperform because of mutual mistrust and lack of collaboration * The equalizers: by suppressing the differences, these teams are just performing on average in order for the business to keep going * The creators: here the potential of a global teams is fully taken advantage of and cost and time are saved while coming up with new and innovative products at the same time As stated in the article, the success of the creators? team was due to the use of the three principles of mapping, bridging and integrating (MBI). * Mapping to understand the differences: i. e. understanding the reasons that lead to the different approach of the team members. This principle includes the following steps: define the territory (identification of the crucial differences), draw the map ( assessment of members` characteristics), assess the terrain ( using the map generated in the previous step in order to identify future potential dynamics), develop cartographers ( mapping alone is not enough for high performance, incorporating the knowledge is what makes difference). Bridging to Communicate Across Differences: here of great importance in the well-functioning communication within the team, the latest define in the article as â€Å"send ing and receiving meaning as it was intended†. Three steps are included in this principle : prepare the ground ( â€Å"motivation to communication†¦ and confidence to overcome any differences† are considered to be crucial, keyword here is also self-management), decenter : build to the other shore ( adapting one? s behavior and thinking to the other’s one, without judgment), recenter: span the bridge ( in contrast to the previous step, here essential is the building of a new basis of interaction after the differences are already known). Integrating to Leverage Differences: the final principle in order to manage diversity consist of the following steps: managing participation for basic leverage with the help of tools and techniques that can facilitate the interaction and include all the members, resolving disagreement ( also hidden ones) to increase leverage and building on ideas for optional leverage, where everybody should be given the chance to take part an d to express their ideas. In conclusion, the article states that the MBI principles are just a prescription, and not a guarantee of success. Furthermore, a separate approach for each team should be applied since each team and its potential is unique.Last but not least, the article concludes with the statement that global teams hide great potential, but it takes time and effort in order for it to be exploited. However, global teams belong inevitable to the future and so, the sooner managers try to use differences and not to avoid them, the better their companies will be performing * Currency: The topic is quite current nowadays. It has been discussed for a large degree in the recent years and it is also going to be a leading issue in the years to come. Also, due to the high degree of unsatisfactory performance of such teams, the topic is going to be further analyzed till some form of advance has been found. Objectivity: The arguments presented are following a certain, easily-traceabl e scheme, with logical relationships and empirical supported information. The logical transition from one stage to another is solidly explained. * Relevance for practitioners: this is highly important topics for practitioners. Because of the effects of increasing globalization and the more free movement of people on a global level, work in diverse teams has become a major issue for managers. Especially the fact, that in such teams a huge potential is hidden, makes the article very attractive for this audience. V. Understanding cultures and implicit leadership theories across the globe : an Introduction to the project GLOBE The article of House et al. ntroduces and gives a more detailed description of the GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness) research program as well as the motives that hide behind the idea. The aim of the survey is to identify how and to what extend could cultural-specific attributes have an influence on effective leadership. The need f or a deeper understanding of the influence of culture on management and leadership styles has arisen for various reasons. Apart from its practical relevance, nowadays it is also highly important to know in what way one should conduct business in a different cultural environment. In addition to that, factors, not taken into consideration in the existing theories ( e. g. eligion, ethnic background) could play a key role in identifying new relationships. Literature on this issue shows an established connection between culture and leadership styles. However, different points of view also exist. According to the article, some believe that historical background inevitably has an impact on the degree of cooperation and commitment. On the other hand, some aspects of leadership are thought to be universal in practice. The GLOBE research consists of several phases and different methods are being used in order to study the relationship between societal and organizational culture, as well as or ganizational leadership.Its team is represented by the Principal Investigator (who is author of the article), Co-Principal Investigators and Country Co-Investigators (CCIs), who have a specific knowledge of the examined cultures and are able to interpret the results in a proper way and context. As stated in the article, the main goal behind the idea for the GLOBE project was to develop an empirically-tested theory which examines the impact of different cultural variables on effective leadership. Of course, this was achieved with the help of numerous sub-questions, which studied different aspects of the acceptance of leader behavior. The following phases were used in the research: Phase 1 – development of research instruments (societal and organizational measures of culture) ; * Phase 2 – assessment of nine relevant dimensions and testing the hypotheses made; additional measures of ethnic, social, political and economic background were also included; * Phase 3 – impact and effectiveness of leadership styles, culture-specific and organization-specific aspects; long-term effects on the organization; In order to conduct the research, unanimous definitions of the examined factors were needed. A consensus was reached about the definition of â€Å"an organizational leadership† and â€Å"a leader†. However, it was not so easy to give a definition for â€Å"culture†. As House et al. states in the article, the chosen variables were â€Å"indicators of shared modal values of collectivist† (House et al, 2002, p. 5) The studied nice dimensions were: Uncertainty Avoidance, Power Distance, Societal and In-Group Collectivism, Gender Egalitarianism, Assertiveness ( reflecting the Hofstede dimensions), Future Orientation ( Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck ), PerformanceOrientations ( Mcclelland ) and Human Orientation ( Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck ) . The empirical research identified six of those nine dimensions that could be generalized for d ifferent cultures. The results were not presented in the article with further details but a reference to another article of the same author was made. The integrated theory in the areas of leadership, values/belief, implicit motivation and organizational form and effectiveness that hides behind the GlOBE model is based on various propositions about the relationships between cultural values, leaders’ actions, organizational and societal culture, strategic organizational contingencies and leader’s effectiveness and his acceptance by others. Currency: The GLOBE project began in the mid-90s and so, the data analyzed has been collected also towards that time, which makes them considerably current. Furthermore, the topic is of great relevance and this would remain so also in the future. Many current studies are also based on the GLOBE project, which means that the information and data it provides are considered to be up-to-date. * Objectivity: The research has been conducted in several phases, also with the usage of different methods, which means that the results presented could be considered for highly reliable. Also, the logical connection between the arguments and the main points discussed are easy to follow and well-grounded. * Relevance for practitioners: Leadership is also one of the main issues of the new century.Due to the fact that business is conducted worldwide and one and the same company is expanding to new and foreign markets, the problem of effective leadership has been worrying many managers. This is why this article provide an important and relevant information for managers and leaders. VI. Cultural Acumen for the Global Manager: Lessons from Project GLOBE The article by Javidan & House focuses on cultural similarities and a difference among many of the countries examined in the GLOBE project, discusses the results and explains their implications for global managers. Globalization itself in considered to be bringing many opportunities, but with respect to cultures, it also brings many challenges.As stated in the article: â€Å"Being global is not just about where you do business. It is also about how you do it. † ( Javidan & House, 2001, p. 292). As an introduction to the topic, the authors mention the drivers and results of globalization and their impact on international business. Nowadays different cultures come more and more often in contact with each other and business is becoming more global than ever. The main drivers for that are considered to be the increasing trade between nations, internet, foreign direct investments and various mergers and acquisitions. As a result of that, collision of different cultures in the business life has become something common.From this, however, could not be concluded that cultural differences diminish. Quite the opposite, major problems and misunderstandings arise from the lack of awareness for the various cultural values and practices. This is why the importance of a competent global leader is becoming crucial. His role was even rated the most important factor for business success in a survey of Fortune 500. An expert in international business is required to accustom and take into consideration differences as well as to consider the ideas and opinion of the partners he is doing business with. Because of the mentioned above, the authors stress the importance of the GLOBE project as a guide for managers in international business.With the help of the nine dimensions (already mentioned in the previous article as well), the derived results could be used for better understanding of cultural similarities and differences. In the articles the nine dimensions are briefly explained and the results of cultural practices are shortly presented: * Assertiveness – explained as the extent to which a self-confident and assertive behavior is tolerated. Here high score the U. S. , Austria and Spain; low – Sweden, New Zealand respectively, the last be ing thought to prefer cooperation over competition. * Future Orientation – the inclination for planning and investing in the future. As highly future-oriented appear Singapore, Switzerland and the Netherlands.On the contrary, Russia, Argentina and Italy are characterized with shorter planning horizon * Gender Differentiation – the emphasize on garner role differences; As paying less importance on gender appear Hungary, Poland and Denmark. , where more women could be found on higher positions. On the other hand, in South Korea, Egypt and China men enjoy higher social status. * Uncertainty Avoidance – in Sweden and Germany more attention is paid to orderliness and structure, whereas in Russia, Greece and Venezuela people are more tolerant towards uncertainty. * Power Distance – here high rank Russia, Thailand and Spain, where superiors are granted greater power and obedience. In countries like Denmark and the Netherlands, however, there is less differentiat ion in the hierarchical structure. Institutional emphasis on collectivism versus individualism – individual performance counts more in countries like Greece, Italy and Argentina. Cooperation and collective good is more important in Sweden, South Korea and Japan, where because of historical reasons people tend to help and rely on each other for their â€Å"survival†. * In-group collectivism- in Iran, India and China belonging to a group is of great importance. In contract, in Denmark, Sweden and New Zealand people do not feel obliged to the others belonging to their groups. * Performance Orientation – in Singapore, Hong Kong and the U. S. results show a high interest in development and training.In countries like Russia, Italy and Argentina people pay more attention to loyalty and tradition than performance and competition * Humane orientation – in Malaysia, Ireland and the Philippines support of each other is highly valued, whereas in Germany, France and S ingapore people are more interested in power and material gains. As the authors point out, the results of the GLOBE project provide information managers can rely on when confronted with cross-cultural communication. Because of the high sensitivity of each culture, for successful negotiations it is crucial to be aware of some cultural differences in the other country, concerning direct language and punctuality, contract horizon, hierarchy etc. As a further advantage of the project, the author point out the high reliability that the findings provide. All in all, the GLOBE provides guidance and help for the global managers and enhances their cultural acumen. Currency: As already mentioned by the evaluation of the previous article, the information that the GLOBE project provides and the possible areas of its implication are a topical relevance and high interest. Furthermore, the problem discussed in the article in a global problem at the moment and will probably be in the next decades. * Objectivity: Data for the research has been gathered in several phases, also with the usage of different methods, which means that the results presented could be considered for highly reliable. Arguments are logically connected and relationships between the results of the project and the problem discussed are supported. Relevance for practitioners: Since globalization brings so many opportunities and doing business abroad always includes minimum a collision of two different cultures, the impact of culture on the business and negotiation process has been of high relevance for practitioners Because the article provides important information in this matter, it could be used as a guide with real-life related tips. VII. Culture: the neglected concept The book chapter â€Å"Culture: the neglected concept† has as main issue the prediction of behavioral differences across cultures. At the beginning the role of culture is discussed as a tool for cross-cultural comparison, as well as the different aspects that culture, social system and society imply. However, no clear conclusion was reach at on how to differentiate cultures.Furthermore, the author mentions also that there is a huge diversity within major nations (e. g. Japan, UK, the Netherlands) and also that there are many conflicts within nations. As next, with the help of key studies, the author tries to develop a conceptual framework which would help to identify variables with which cultures could be differentiated. Different studies using economic development factors, or ecological and sociopolitical indicators were discussed, but in both cases there were criticism and inconsistent findings. A positive contribution was considered the work of Hofstede in his book â€Å"Culture’s consequences†. He has analyzed a large scale data bank and on this basis has developed a model how to compare countries.He has classified them into four dimensions: power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualis m-collectivism and masculinity- femininity. Of course, that model is considered to be just one possibility in finding differences among on a country level. Hofstede’s study was criticized on various basis, but still the data used covers a substantial global sample. Furthermore, conformity is identified in the definition of culture by Hofstede and Rohner. However, it has been pointed out that the core values of Hofstede are applicable to national cultures and not individuals, and as still, they are average results. The Chinese Culture Connection pointed out the necessity to discount cultural bias from the results Hofstede came with.The results of their research overlapped to a great extend with those of Hofstede (three out of four factors). In addition to that, another variable was also proposed which led later on to the supplement of a fifth dimension. Another study by Schwarz was reviewing earlier history and defined three needs as essential: biological needs, social coordin ation needs, and the survival and welfare needs. This study was more analyzing the meaning different people put into values and it focused more on individuals rather than countries. However, the results were seen as a more detailed version than those of Hofstede. Furthermore, Trompenaars examined value dilemmas across nations.He proposed seven dimensions, some of them very close to the ones of Hofstede plus conservatism-egalitarian commitment and loyal involvement – utilitarian involvement. In the last part of the chapter a step-wise approach towards identifying a useful conceptual framework was adopted. Firstly, a search for universal aspects of social behavior, mainly used by social anthropologists and psychologist, has been discussed. In this place universals are further divided into simple, variform and functional ones, the first two mainly used by ‘etic’ analysis of human behavior and the third one- in ‘emic’ analysis. The last one (emic analysi s) is considered for the most reliable method for making generalizations on a local level.In this first step also the four elementary forms of social relations by Fiske are mentioned : ‘communal sharing’ , ’authority ranking’ (these two similar to two of the Hofstede’s dimensions) , ‘equality matching’ ( i. e. parties relate on the basis of equal contribution) and ‘market pricing’ (i. e. people use their comparative advantages over the others). The second step mentioned is the dilemma about the cultural causation of human behavior. A problematic point here is to determine if the research question is to be examined at the individual- or at the culture- level (the so called levels of analysis). The article proposed several different approached by different researchers. Furthermore, Smith and Schwartz (1997) proposed the following dimensions: autonomy vs. embeddedness and equality vs. ierarchy, which resemble again some of the Hofstede’s dimensions (namely individualism-collectivism and power distance), but using the updated results from some more recent studies. Then the authors introduce a further division of collectivism according to the context it is meant: in a hierarchical or egalitarian one. According to Parsons and Shils there is also another pair of concept: universalism and particularism. The first is describing the equal distribution of justice and the second – the subjective desire to associate with somebody. The final part of the chapter comes back to the major issue if values of people serve as a sufficient orientation point when cultures are being compared. Behavior is also mentioned to play an important role in this matter.Different studies are offering different approaches and assumptions concerning those variables and it is also presumed that this is a potential future field of further research. * Currency: Concerning this criterion, this chapter might be classified as a b it old. A reason for that is not only the publication year (1998), but also because many of the studies and data used for it are already dating to even earlier. As it is quite well-known, the new century brought with itself many new directions for the futures and the impact of globalization on culture-related issues changes every now and then. * Objectivity: In this chapter various authors and research results are mentioned, however with the criticism that some of the researches conducted do not based on a solid and reliable data.The different concepts are relationships between concepts and studies are explained, but due to the large number of studies and various explanations, the comprehensiveness sometimes goes lost and this might lead to losing the logic of the argument. * Relevance for practitioners: the approach in this chapter is more theoretical relevant than practical. Many studies are discussed, which are based on different approaches and research fields. However, less prac tical applicability in real business life has been detected. VIII. Theoretical Basis: Intercultural Communication and Cooperation The article of Thomas begins with a discussion about culture and its meaning.He compares it with a ‘system of orientation’ that creates a sense of belonging among the members of the same culture due to its specific features. Moreover, based on the usage of the same symbols and meanings, people can identify that they belong to the same group. However, in the socialization process it often happens that we are confronted with an unfamiliar behavior. Here a crucial point is what orientation signals to use when two persons from different cultures are in a conflict situation. A good example of the different approaches of Germans and Americans is given – the first handing more customer-oriented and the second caring more about technical perfection.Those examples lead to the conclusion that some general cultural standards exists that can expla in why different cultures act differently and the same situation. Furthermore, domain-specific cultural standards also exist, which are bound to a specific context. Lastly, another study indicates also the existence cultural-specific behavior patterns. The main use of cultural standards in that they provide a helping hand for orientating and explain why the partner behaves unfamiliar. The knowledge of other culture standards can be very important by interpersonal negotiating and cooperating. In addition to national culture, the concept of corporate culture also exists and it is highly influenced by the first one.In an organization, many factors, such as the industry the company in operating in and other job-related factors have an impact on the behavior of its members/employees and thus they can also form a â€Å"common language† and values. It is suggested that corporate culture can be analyzed on the basis a three-level-model suggested by Schein. Those are: material and imm aterial artefacts (easy to identify, but not to interpret their impact), values, norm and rules of behaviour (great influence) and basic assumption (vastly accepted values that help attain corporate goals). Thus, due to the daily interaction people in a corporation create their own subjective reality, based on the common values and social norms.So, as stated in the article, corporate culture is influenced by and influences national culture on the one side, and on the other, there are also subcultures formed within the corporate one. As a further point in the article the effects of internalization are discussed. Because of this phenomenon, the international atmosphere that is more often to find in many work places, cause that many different national cultures collide in an organization. Here an importance should also be paid to the industry the company is operating. The author mentions both the advantages and challenges of internalization and mentions that the inability to identify wi th the newly formed corporate culture can has a serious negative impact on the newly formed company.This is why the issue of the transition from the old to a new system has become a central concern for the leaders of such international corporations. The last part deals with cultural overlap, more precisely, the situation when two people with different cultures (values and understandings too) are supposed to work together. This difference can either improve the work together or threaten it. In the article four type of behavioural ruler are presented: either the own culture is considered for superior and the other party has to adapt or vice versa. The third option would be the one, where the two parties are too different in order to cooperate in any case.The best option, however, is when significant elements of the two cultures and combined and integrated into a new one. A Challenge in those rules is to gain more understanding about the cause-effect relationship of each other’s behaviour and also to have a deeper understanding about the own way of thinking and judgement and the reasons defining the way of perception of the other. New opportunities could be recognized and exploited only if a person is open for and interested in the different culture, and not taking right away the unfamiliar behaviour for one of lower rang. Obviously, none of the too extreme options (convergence or divergence) are good for the interaction.As stated in the article, differences should be recognized and acknowledged, and a gradual modification of the own, and adaptation to the other’s culture should follow. The next question that arises is: to what extend should that happen? As a conclusion it is said, that interculturality is only possible is one of the partners has a dominant role. However, he should also be able to understand and accept the other’s behaviour, be tolerant and respect it. This characteristic can be best developed by specialized trainings and int ercultural coaching. * Currency: The book from with this chapter comes was published only in 2010, which is an obvious sign of its currency. Furthermore, the issue discussed in it is becoming more and more important with the ever increasing trend towards internalization. Objectivity: The chapter includes different theories, but no own empirical research. Many situations are given as an example for the stated arguments and those sound quite convincing. Also for the issue discussed, probably observation of behavior in cultural overlap should also be more appropriate. * Relevance for practitioners: The topic is quite important for managers doing business abroad. Even if they are not aware of the fact, that cultural overlap can cause huge problems in negotiations or work together, the topic should be seriously taken by them. The main argument behind that is the fact that the majority of foreign ventures are not successful mainly due to misunderstandings between the parties. IX.The A, B, Cs of Acculturation This chapter is a review of both theory and empirical research concerning acculturation. The term of acculturation is defined here as â€Å"changes that occur as a result of continuous first-hand contact between individuals of different cultures† (Ward, 2001). Furthermore, it can be divided on the basis of various dimensions. In this chapter the focus falls on sojourners, immigrants and refugees on the one hand, and social identification, culture learning and stress and coping theoretical approaches, on the other. The first of the theoretical approaches – social identification- concerns the perception of oneself and others.This can be measured on two levels- on individual (focuses on how acculturation is defined and measured) or on group-level (interaction between a member and a foreigner of a community). Culture learning, on the other hand, blames for the cross cultural problems the ‘foreign’ parties and suggests that they should adap t to the culture-specific variables. The third approach defines the process of adapting as a series of stress-provoking situations, followed by attempts to cope with them. In a reversed order, those approaches constitute the three components of acculturation- affective, behavioral and cognitive, the so called A, B, Cs of acculturation.The question how to define adaptation has been mentioned as an important point. Many indices resulting from numerous researches have been proposed, each offering different approach and models. However, as common variables in all mentioned measures appear the psychological well-being/satisfaction and the effective relationships with representatives of the new culture. Furthermore, the author proposes two major categories for intercultural adaptation – psychological adjustment and sociocultural adaptation – that provide a good but still scarce overview. A model that combines the three theoretical approaches and the two aspects of cross-cult ural adaptation is further introduced and described in details.On the cognitive side (social identification), three models are mentioned for fundamental changes of cultural identity: assimilation of the foreign culture, a middle position between assimilation and separatism (bicultural identity) and the perception of the host and home cultures as independent. The following findings were presented: younger immigrants tend to be more easily acculturated; men get accustomed quicker than women and second generation immigrants are more opened to adapt. In addition to that, demographic, educational and socioeconomic factor also have an impact on acculturation. However, a recommendation for further theory development has been because of the insufficiency and inconsistency of the existing ones. The next approach – cultural learning- focused on behavioral changes in connection with cultural interaction in order to gain useful skills to adapt.Social skills and social interaction has bee n mentioned as crucial. However, many barriers, may threaten the successful intercultural communication. For example, nonverbal forms, such as gestures, silence or facial expression, that have different meaning across cultures, may lead to even an insult without any purpose. These obstacles can be over masters with the help of cultural trainings, participation and intercultural friendships. Sociocultural adaptation could be facilitate with more culture-specific knowledge, it follows a learning curve and it is easier for sedentary groups. Of greatest importance for the last theoretical approach is the prediction of psychological adjustment.For the stress-and-coping approach cultural contact and change are crucial because they lead to the search of a response. Here also a recommendation for further research in the area has been made. In the conclusion the author mentions that concerning acculturation, the field of research is vast. The combination of theory and conducted research cont ributes to the better understanding of the issue, but it is still not universal. Cultural differences could easily be translated into assimilation discouragement and psychological and sociocultural problems. Even if great development in the area of acculturation has been witnessed, for the future more comprehensive and larger scale studies would be warmly welcomed. Currency: The chapter has been published in the beginning of the century, thus also marking the beginning of the century where borders have less and less meaning. The topic is also one that is highly discussed and many future researches will be directed towards the issue of acculturation. * Objectivity: The chapter represents a mix of various theories and empirical studies, the results of various relevant to the topic studies has been presented and so, this criteria could be considered as fully fulfilled. * Relevance for practitioners : No doubt the problem of acculturation and the impact on a global level is of high rele vance for practitioners.Especially since borders has lost their meaning, nowadays people are moving all around the world, and consequently, are directly faced with the problem. References: Adler, N. : Global managers: no longer men alone. In : The international Journal of Human Resource Management, 2002, Vol. 13(5) (pp. 746-761) Distefano,J. , Maznevski, M. : Creating Values with Diverse Teams in Global Management. 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